Shells and Subshells

                                       Shells and Subshells


The difference between the atoms, insofar as their chemical activity and stability are concerned, is dependent upon the number and position of the electrons included within the atom. How are these electrons positioned within the atom? In general, the electrons reside in groups of orbits called shells. These shells are elliptically shaped and are assumed to be located at fixed intervals. Thus, the shells are arranged in steps that correspond to fixed energy levels. The shells, and the number of electrons required to fill them, may be predicted by the employment of Pauli's exclusion principle. Simply stated, this principle specifies that each shell will contain a maximum of 2n2electrons, where n corresponds to the shell number starting with the one closest to the nucleus. By this principle, the second shell, for example, would contain 2(2)2 or 8 electrons when full.

In addition to being numbered, the shells are also given letter designations, as pictured in figure 1-3. Starting with the shell closest to the nucleus and progressing outward, the shells are labeled K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q, respectively. The shells are considered to be full, or complete, when they contain the following quantities of electrons: two in the K shell, eight in the L shell, 18 in the M shell, and so on, in accordance with the exclusion principle. Each of these shells is a major shell and can be divided into subshells, of which there are four, labeled s, p, d, and f. Like the major shells, the subshells are also limited as to the number of electrons which they can contain. Thus, the "s" subshell is complete when it contains two electrons, the "p" subshell when it contains 10, and the "f" subshell when it contains 14 fourteen electrons.
 
 
 

figure-1

In as much as the K shell can contain no more than two electrons, it must have only one subshell, the s subshell. The M shell is composed of three subshells: s, p, and d. If the electrons in the s, p, and d subshells are added, their total is found to be 18, the exact number required to fill the M shell. Notice the electron configuration for copper illustrated in figure 2. The copper atom contains 29 electrons, which completely fill the first three shells and subshells, leaving one electron in the"s" subshell of the N shell.

           Valence

        
The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the valence of an atom. For this reason, the outer shell of an atom is called the VALENCE SHELL; and the electrons contained in this shell are called VALENCE ELECTRONS. The valence of an atom determines its ability to gain or lose an electron, which in turn determines the chemical and electrical properties of the atom. An atom that is lacking only one or two electrons from its outer shell will easily gain electrons to complete its shell, but a large amount of energy is required to free any of its electrons. An atom having a relatively small number of electrons in its outer shell in comparison to the number of electrons required to fill the shell will easily lose these valence electrons. The valence shell always refers to the outermost shell.
 
   Ionization


When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process of electron exchange, it is said to be IONIZED. For ionization to take place, there must be a transfer of energy which results in a change in the internal energy of the atom. An atom having more than its normal amount of electrons acquires a negative charge, and is called a NEGATIVE ION. The atom that gives up some of its normal electrons is left with less negative charges than positive charges and is called a POSITIVE ION. Thus, ionization is the process by which an atom loses or gains electrons.